Red Cross, Red Crescent On the evening of 24 June 1859 Jean-Henri Dunant, a young Swiss, found himself by chance in the Lombardy village of Castiglione, during the Italian Campaign to free Italy from Austrian occupation. Throughout the day some 300 000 soldiers, with accompanying horses and artillery, had been engaged nearby in battle. Fought in a confined space surrounded by hills, the main thrust had been in and around the village and heights of Solferino which was to give the battle its name. When the fighting ceased abruptly in the late afternoon some 40 000 men were dead, wounded, or missing.
Although the medical services of the victorious French were well organized by the standards of the day, the scale of the casualties was beyond their ability to cope. The addition of enemy wounded abandoned by fleeing comrades completely overwhelmed them. To speed their retreat, the Austrians had commandeered most of the carts in the district, thus adding to the difficulties. Those wounded who could neither walk nor crawl had to depend on the few ambulance wagons the French had in the field. Hundreds did not survive the wait.
Castiglione became a huge casualty clearing station with the wounded packed tightly wherever there was space for a man to lie. Of those lying in the streets or gardens, many were without shelter from the burning sun. There was a shortage of food, medical supplies, water — everything. Above all, there was a shortage of people to look after the casualties.
Aghast at the conditions, Dunant was tireless in tending the wounded and persuading others to help. At first the villagers were reluctant, afraid of reprisals should the occupying power regain control and find they had helped the enemy. ‘Tutti fratelli,’ Dunant repeated again and again, explaining that we are all brothers and that, once wounded, a man became a victim deserving of help regardless of the side he had been on.
Afterwards Dunant could not forget the suffering he had witnessed and to exorcize his ghosts wrote a book called A memory of Solferino. In it he pleaded for neutral status for the wounded, those tending them, and whatever was used to transport and house them. Mindful, too, that the resources of military medical services are seldom unlimited, he also suggested that each country should train volunteers in peacetime to supplement the medical services of armies in time of war. The book captured the imagination of the rich and influential of mid 19th century Europe. On 26 October 1863 a small committee, of which he was secretary, hosted an international congress in Geneva at which Dunant's proposals were accepted. Before the year was out the first National Relief (to become Red Cross or Red Crescent) Societies had been formed. Recognizing that more than pious hopes would be required to make sure that the neutral status of the wounded would be respected at all times, the committee persuaded the Swiss government to convene a Diplomatic Conference in Geneva the following year. It was attended by representatives of many European countries, among them Great Britain. Two weeks later, on 22 August 1864, an international treaty, the Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded of Armies in the Field, was signed.
In the course of its deliberations it had become apparent to the conference that something would be needed to differentiate members of the medical services — and their volunteer helpers — from combatant troops, keeping them safe from attack: an immunity they had not enjoyed hitherto. A similar immunity was required for hospitals, permanent and temporary, and ambulance wagons. The emblem chosen, and incorporated into the 1864 Convention, was a red cross on a white field — the Swiss flag in reverse. Although it had no religious significance and was not intended to have any, a crescent was substituted in certain Muslim countries, where the red cross was seen as a symbol of Christianity. With a third emblem, no longer in use, the crescent was legalized and officially adopted in 1929 at a diplomatic conference. At the same time, the signatory governments stipulated that no further emblems would be considered as a visible sign of protection accorded by the Geneva Conventions.
In 1919, the International Red Cross extended its activities to include help for the victims of natural disasters. A League of Red Cross Societies was set up to coordinate this work and to help new societies to develop.
By its 120th anniversary, in 1983, the Red Cross movement had over 200 million members: practically every independent state in the world was a signatory to the Geneva Conventions — which by that time numbered four — and most signatory countries had a national Red Cross or Red Crescent Society.
Although national societies are autonomous they are bound by the principles and statutes of the Red Cross, which oblige them to support each other, and by the Red Cross objectives for war and peace which are common to all societies. Individual societies engage in peacetime programs appropriate to their national needs. Primary medical care has an important role in developing countries, for instance. Disaster preparedness programs have a vital part in countries which lie in natural disaster belts. In some countries the blood donor service is one of the principal activities, while in others welfare services predominate.
In 1901, Henry Dunant was joint recipient of the first Nobel Peace Prize. Subsequently, it was awarded to the International Red Cross in 1917, 1944, and 1963.
Dunant, Jean Henri
Hilda Kalant
Although the medical services of the victorious French were well organized by the standards of the day, the scale of the casualties was beyond their ability to cope. The addition of enemy wounded abandoned by fleeing comrades completely overwhelmed them. To speed their retreat, the Austrians had commandeered most of the carts in the district, thus adding to the difficulties. Those wounded who could neither walk nor crawl had to depend on the few ambulance wagons the French had in the field. Hundreds did not survive the wait.
Castiglione became a huge casualty clearing station with the wounded packed tightly wherever there was space for a man to lie. Of those lying in the streets or gardens, many were without shelter from the burning sun. There was a shortage of food, medical supplies, water — everything. Above all, there was a shortage of people to look after the casualties.
Aghast at the conditions, Dunant was tireless in tending the wounded and persuading others to help. At first the villagers were reluctant, afraid of reprisals should the occupying power regain control and find they had helped the enemy. ‘Tutti fratelli,’ Dunant repeated again and again, explaining that we are all brothers and that, once wounded, a man became a victim deserving of help regardless of the side he had been on.
Afterwards Dunant could not forget the suffering he had witnessed and to exorcize his ghosts wrote a book called A memory of Solferino. In it he pleaded for neutral status for the wounded, those tending them, and whatever was used to transport and house them. Mindful, too, that the resources of military medical services are seldom unlimited, he also suggested that each country should train volunteers in peacetime to supplement the medical services of armies in time of war. The book captured the imagination of the rich and influential of mid 19th century Europe. On 26 October 1863 a small committee, of which he was secretary, hosted an international congress in Geneva at which Dunant's proposals were accepted. Before the year was out the first National Relief (to become Red Cross or Red Crescent) Societies had been formed. Recognizing that more than pious hopes would be required to make sure that the neutral status of the wounded would be respected at all times, the committee persuaded the Swiss government to convene a Diplomatic Conference in Geneva the following year. It was attended by representatives of many European countries, among them Great Britain. Two weeks later, on 22 August 1864, an international treaty, the Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded of Armies in the Field, was signed.
In the course of its deliberations it had become apparent to the conference that something would be needed to differentiate members of the medical services — and their volunteer helpers — from combatant troops, keeping them safe from attack: an immunity they had not enjoyed hitherto. A similar immunity was required for hospitals, permanent and temporary, and ambulance wagons. The emblem chosen, and incorporated into the 1864 Convention, was a red cross on a white field — the Swiss flag in reverse. Although it had no religious significance and was not intended to have any, a crescent was substituted in certain Muslim countries, where the red cross was seen as a symbol of Christianity. With a third emblem, no longer in use, the crescent was legalized and officially adopted in 1929 at a diplomatic conference. At the same time, the signatory governments stipulated that no further emblems would be considered as a visible sign of protection accorded by the Geneva Conventions.
In 1919, the International Red Cross extended its activities to include help for the victims of natural disasters. A League of Red Cross Societies was set up to coordinate this work and to help new societies to develop.
By its 120th anniversary, in 1983, the Red Cross movement had over 200 million members: practically every independent state in the world was a signatory to the Geneva Conventions — which by that time numbered four — and most signatory countries had a national Red Cross or Red Crescent Society.
Although national societies are autonomous they are bound by the principles and statutes of the Red Cross, which oblige them to support each other, and by the Red Cross objectives for war and peace which are common to all societies. Individual societies engage in peacetime programs appropriate to their national needs. Primary medical care has an important role in developing countries, for instance. Disaster preparedness programs have a vital part in countries which lie in natural disaster belts. In some countries the blood donor service is one of the principal activities, while in others welfare services predominate.
In 1901, Henry Dunant was joint recipient of the first Nobel Peace Prize. Subsequently, it was awarded to the International Red Cross in 1917, 1944, and 1963.
Dunant, Jean Henri
Hilda Kalant
See also war
How to cite this entry:
Hilda Kalant "Red Cross" The Oxford Companion to Medicine. Stephen Lock, John M. Last, and George Dunea. Oxford University Press 2001. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. 14 August 2011
Hilda Kalant "Red Cross" The Oxford Companion to Medicine. Stephen Lock, John M. Last, and George Dunea. Oxford University Press 2001. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. 14 August 2011
